1. Location – Name

The city of Tirebolu (ancient Tripolis) is located near the mouth of the river Harşit, 77 km west of Trebizond and 54 km east of Giresun. The mountains Sis Dağı and Çal Dağı (2810m and 1966m respectively) are close to the city. Its name (Tripolis= three cities) resulted from the three ancient cities that preexisted in the region: Ischopolis, Argyria or Argyreia, Philokaleia.¹ After the Ottoman conquest it took the name Driboli and later Tirebolu.

2. Administrative subordination

In the 15th century, that is the early years of the Ottoman domination, Tirebolu belonged to Κürtün nahiye,² which was subordinated to Trabzon vilayet.³ Later in the same century, it became seat of kaza. Periodically, this kaza belonged to either Gümüşhane sancak or Giresun sancak.⁴ In the 19th century, the city of Tirebolu was the seat of Tirebolu kaymakamlik and it was subordinated to the mutasarriflik and the vilayet of Trabzon. According to the information of Şemseddin Sami and Ali Cevad, this administrative position was maintained until the end of the 19th century.⁵

The municipality of Tirebolu was founded in 1877.⁶ In 1892 Tirebolu kaymakamlik had two muhtarliks: Görele and Şiran.⁷ Şemseddin Sami says that in the same period, 114 villages were subordinated to Tirebolu kaymakamlik.⁸ In the 20th century, the administrative subordination of Tirebolu kaymakamlik remained the same as that of the 19th century, but the number of villages that belonged to the kaymakamlik increased. In total, there are mentioned 125 Muslim and Christian villages.⁹

3. History

In 1461, Tirebolu was captured by Mehmed the Conqueror, during his war against Komnenos dynasty. After the city’s occupation by the Ottomans, the Turkman nomads Çepni settled there.¹⁰ In that way, the Muslim elements started to develop in the region. According to the existing indications, from 15th to 18th century, Tirebolu developed economically, as being a port, but there was no great increase in population. Perhaps for this reason, in 1701 Tournefort described it as a village. In the 18th century, many immigrant metal workers from the region of Chaldia settled in Tirebolu and other cities. Unlike other cities and regions of Pontus, its inhabitants were not converted to Islam, but they retained their religious tradition, because of the existence of mines where the inhabitants worked having special privileges such as exemption from certain taxes.

In 1806, Kel Alioğlu Ali Ağa settled in Tirebolu, after the revolt of Tuzcu oğulları family in the region of Erzurum. In 1816 Kel Alioğlu Ali Ağa captured the city, but on the 26th of October 1816 the Ottoman troops regained control. During the Revolution of 1821, the situation was explosive among the Orthodox of the city, as it was indicated in the firman which was sent from Constantinople to the administration of Tirebolu in the end of April 1821. According to the firman, the Orthodox who supported and participated in the revolution would face stiff penalties.¹¹

After the outbreak of the First World War and the entry of the Ottoman Empire into it, the conditions in the city changed dramatically. In December 1914, Tirebolu was bombarded by the Russian fleet killing civilians, among whom there were Greeks too.¹² The displacement of Armenian inhabitants of the city began less than a year later, in mid June 1915.

At dawn on Sunday 16th of November 1916, there began the displacement of about 3.000 Orthodox from the city of Tirebolu. The Orthodox Christians were driven to Brik, an abandoned Armenian village, where 500 families once lived. Four months after having settled there, an epidemic broke out. Later, they moved to Russia, where they stayed for approximately 9 months. Finally, in April 1919, many of them left Russia for Greece.¹³

4. Demography

In the early years of the Ottoman rule in Tirebolu, there were only Christian Orthodox inhabitants. According to the first census of 1486, there were only 67 Christian Orthodox households in the fortress.¹⁴ It is known that the nomads Çepni settled there later, but there is no information about the date of settlement. In 1515 the number of Orthodox households was 271, 60 of which had settled there in the 16th century, without being known where they came from.¹⁵ In the same year, 4 Muslim households were recorded too. Later, in the censuses of 1554, there are recorded 16 Muslim households, 265 Othodox households, 6 unmarried Muslims and 132 unmarried Orthodox. In the next censuses, the number of both the Orthodox and the Muslim households had increased to 397 and 27 respectively.¹⁶ In 1640, Evliya Çelebi described Tirebolu as a city in good economic condition, with Christian Orthodox inhabitants.¹⁷ Obviously, the Orthodox constituted the majority of the inhabitants. We have no information about the population composition of Tirebolu in the 18th century.

In 1813, Kinneir referred to 400 Christian households.¹⁸ However, in 1834, 400 Muslim and 100 Christian families lived in Tirebolu.¹⁹ The significant decrease in the number of the Orthodox inhabitants within twenty years resulted from the economic decline of the city. In 1846, the number of Muslim and Christian families increased to 450 and 150 respectively. In 1866, the number of Orthodox homes increased to 200 and remained the same until 1870.²⁰ In 1869, there were 8.258 male taxpayers in the city, 1.707 of whom were Orthodox and 205 Armenians.²¹ In 1877, there were 500 houses in the city, 100 of which belonged to Orthodox.²² In 1880, according to the state censuses for Trabzon vilayet, 18.139 male taxpayers lived in Tirebolu, 2.934 of whom were Orhodox and 213 Armenians.²³ Cuinet reported that in 1890, 8.000 people lived in Tirebolu, 5.600 of which were Muslim, 2.000 Christian Orthodox and 400 Gregorian Armenians.²⁴ There is no information about when the Armenians settled in Tirebolu, but it must have occurred in the 19th century. In 1901, there were 250 Orthodox families,²⁵ but in 1903 increased to 350, according to the information of the Trebizond Metropolitan, Chrysanthos. According to Chrysanthos, the total Orthodox population was 3000,²⁶ but this number seems rather excessive. Between 1910 and 1912, economic reasons forced several Orthodox to leave Tirebolu for Russia.²⁷ In the last years of the Orthodox presence, the city was inhabited by approximately 2.500 Orthodox people.²⁸

The Christian inhabitants spoke in Pontiac, which was similar to that of Argyroupolis, but different to that of Giresun.²⁹

5. Religion

The chatziliki was one of the most important religious customs of the Christian Orthodox inhabitants of Tirebolu. The pilgrims began their journey before Clean Monday so that in the Holy Week they would have arrived at the Holy Land. They travelled through the sea crossing the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean. They passed from Constantinople, Dodecanese and Cyprus and anchored off Scala of Beirut, near Jaffa; from there, they proceeded on foot to Jerusalem. This journey was realized only by wealthy people, because it was very expensive. There were also women pilgrims, who were called chatzades or chatzines. They returned to homeland in the period between Sunday after Easter and the middle of the week after that, and they had to give various gifts to their friends and relatives and support the poor ones. They were also obliged to offer hospitality to the strangers coming to Tirebolu.³⁰

6. The settlement’s structure

The available information on the structure of the city is about the mid-nineteenth and the early twentieth century, that is before the Orthodox population abandoned the city. In the mid-nineteenth century, Cintaşi, Hammam, Yeniköy, Çarşı, Kumyalı, Puçuklu, Kurtköyü, Gelibolu, Çatalçeşme, Çarşıbaşı ή Çarşı, İçeri και Mataracı constituted the districts of the city. The district Çarşıbaşı had been the centre of commercial activity and it was located in the port of the city.³¹ In the late 19th and early 20th century, Paraportin, Salonin, Tsimidou, Roudin and Agaloukin were the purely Christian districts. The districts Egkikioi, Machmoutin, Karaman Gialousou and Sargana constituted the mixed districts where the Orthodox resided near the coast and the Turks in the inner-city area. In Agaloukin, the majority was Orthodox and there were few Armenians too.³² In the district Sargana, there lived 40 Orthodox families and few Muslims. In the district Karaman Gialousou or Karaman Gialou the majority of the inhabitants were Muslims and there were only 36 Orthodox families. The district Roudin was located on the right side of the port and it was inhabited by only 42 Orthodox families. 47 Orthodox families lived in Paraporti and 42 in Machmoutin. In the mixed district of Egkikioi, there lived 45 Christian Orthodox families, while in Salon, 23 Orthodox families. Tsimida was the most important Orthodox district of the city with 70 families. In this district, there was located the church of the Senior General Michael (Archistratigos Michail) and the Urban School.³³

In the late 19th century, there were 8 Mosques, 2 Orthodox churches, 1 Armenian, 350 shops, 2 inns, 1 hammam, 15 bakeries and 8 mills. ³⁴ There were also two squares: Tsin-Tasi (The Fairy Stone) and the square near the port called Limeni.³⁵ Finally, there were beautiful stone houses with tiles.³⁶

7. Economy

In Tirebolu, there wasn’t a road linking the city with inner Asia Minor. That part was accessible only by sea. Until 1820, transports from and to the other coastal cities of Pontus were made by small boats, which carried most of the products for exports and imports. The establishment of a dockyard (tarsanas) in 1703 helped the economic life of the city greatly.³⁷ In the late 18th century, the city had already had great commercial activity towards Russia.³⁸ In the late 19th and in the 20th century, the big ships were sailing in the Black Sea under Russian flag. In 1840, the shipbuilding in Tirebolu began to develop, so that bigger ships came into circulation.³⁹

Tirebolu’s most important commercial exchanges were carried out with Trabzon and mostly with Giresun; both supplied the city with general trade goods too. The main supplies came from Russia: flour, sugar, petrol⁴⁰. Twice a week bazaars took place, in Espien on Monday and in Chalkavala on Wednesday.⁴¹ Residents of nearby villages participated in these bazaars, where they were selling their products. Livestock hadn’t developed in the city, because there were no meadows and pastures.

Cannabis was the only crop cultivated in such quantities as to yield significant income to the inhabitants making ropes and textiles, and using it in food. The textile industry based on cannabis was widespread, because until the First World War, all the inhabitants wore this type of clothes.⁴² Among the cereals, only corn flourished. The corn bread was the sole kind of bread in the city as well as part of the diet of all the social strata. Also, they cultivated beans, rice, walnuts and black cabbage. Their vineyards were famous, as well as their wine, which was exported. By the mid-nineteenth century, the dry wine was the most important export of Tirebolu. Later, when they noticed that the hazelnut yielded higher profits, they uprooted the vineyards and started to cultivate hazelnuts. As the shipping industry developed, hazelnuts were exported to distant markets, such as Alexandria and Marseille. The cultivation of hazelnuts started to expand circa 1856 and the whole trade of the city relied on it. In the late 19th century, the standard of living was very low due to reduction in the prices of hazelnuts in the market, but later, in the early 20th century, the prices doubled. When the First World War broke out, the maritime communications were interrupted and the inhabitants turned from hazelnuts to the production of oil.⁴³ In Tirebolu, there were produced two kinds of hazelnuts: “Sibri”, which had long shape, it was more delicious and was cultivated exclusively for being exported to Russia. The cheaper one was called “Bulk”; it was round and was exported to Europe.⁴⁴

In the 19th and 20th century, many fishermen from Tirebolu went to Russia, specifically to the coastline of Crimea, as economic immigrants. They worked for wages and commissions in fish-plants making salted fishes. They left their families in March and returned in September. During the winter, they didn’t work. The bulk of emigrants didn’t learn any craft. The Orthodox people who stayed in the city were shopkeepers and most of them were bakers, but there were also artisan builders, joiners, even cooks.⁴⁵

8. Administration

In the 19th century, the city was seat of kaymakam. There was also a seven-member council consisting of two Muslims, one Armenian, one representative of the Orthodox community, one Orthodox Church commissioner, one müfti and the kaymakam himself. The representative of the Orthodox community (or muhtar), who was Greek-speaking, belonged to the council of kaymakam. He was elected by the Greek population of the city with the support of the elders’ council (Dimogerontia). The muhtar was responsible for collecting the taxes of the Orthodox people and handing it over to the authorities. In the early 20th century, this position was abolished.⁴⁶

In the 19th century, there was established the community of the Orthodox people of Tirebolu. After being established, the most well-off man among its members occupied the presidency. Hadji-Giorgos Mavridis was one of the most famous community officials and had monopolized this office for almost 40 years. Because of his wealth, he exercised strong influence on people in Trebizond, Constantinople and among the Muslims of Tirebolu. Simultaneously, he was member of the municipal council of Tirebolu as councilor of the kaymakam. Because of having stayed in this office for long, his fellow natives called him “dictator”.⁴⁷

A great conflict broke out between Mavridis and the community. The community made every effort to achieve his removal from the presidency. For this reason, in the beginning of the 20th century, the community drew up a regulation, called “Communal Constitution”, according to which the president of the community must be elected by popular vote. Mavridis made use of all the powers and means he had in order to meet with this new conditions which led to his removal from the community’s presidency. Finally, “he bought one hundred supporters who gave him the victory in the elections”.⁴⁸ According to the “Communal Constitution”, elections were conducted and, once again, Mavridis became president.

The communal committee consisted of thirteen members: five elders-dimogerontes, three in the Ephorate, one school supervisor, two church commissioners, and two commissioners for collecting delayed taxes. The term of elders’ office was two-year.⁴⁹ There were made attempts so that all the differences among the Greeks were solved by the community in order to avoid recourse to the Ottoman authorities.

The Greeks paid the community a tax called “school levy”, which was proportional to each one’s economic condition. If someone didn’t pay, he wouldn’t have the right to vote in community elections. The poor people hardly ever paid, so they didn’t have the right to vote. The communal property consisted mainly of real estate. The communal expenses were covered by the “school levy” or charities. The community didn’t maintain roads or make public works but offered assistance to the poor and sick people. The bishop did not intervene in the administration of the community, unless the issue was religious.⁵⁰ After the establishment of the municipality in 1877, the major was elected by the city’s population and he was always Muslim. In 1908, the youth of Tirebolu established the Greek Educational Association “Odyssey” with the aim of disseminating the education among young people and reinforcing the poor of the city.⁵¹

9. Church

In the 19th century, there were two churches in Tirebolu, which was administratively subordinated to the Diocese of Trebizond.⁵² The big Orthodox church of the city was dedicated to the Senior General Michael and it was situated in the district Tzamida. The small Byzantine church, which was built on a rock, was dedicated to Zoodochos Pigi and in the late 19th century it was turned into mosque.⁵³

Every two or three years, the Metropolitan toured his region. His representative was responsible for issuing marriage licenses and other documents. In the church, the gospel was read in Pontiac.⁵⁴

10. Education

In the early 19th century, there was no school in the city of Tirebolu. The inhabitants’ education was undertaken by a literate man called “logiotatos”.⁵⁵ In the middle of the 19th century, there was a school where the priest of the city taught.⁵⁶ In 1866, a monitorial school operated in the city, but in 1870, the first Greek boys’ school was established, in which many students from the surrounding villages were enrolled.⁵⁷ The elementary school of the city was built probably in the late 19th century and it was founded by Kyriakos Xenopoulos. The building was near the church of Zoodochos Pigi.⁵⁸ In 1896, 120 pupils were enrolled and 3 teachers taught in the elementary school,⁵⁹ which consisted of a seven-grade boys’ school and three-grade girls’ school. From the fourth grade and onwards, the girls and the boys attended the same class. The kindergarten was housed in the same building with the elementary school.⁶⁰

In 1905, Mavrideia Schools were established with contributions from the community. Then, Mavridis was the community’s president, who tried to give his name to the school, but the Orthodox people of the city didn’t accept it, which resulted in turbulence.⁶¹ Mavrideia Schools consisted of a seven-grade urban boys’ school and a five-grade girls’ school, and it had 6 teachers and 350 pupils.⁶² The schools were maintained by the community, which appointed the school superintendent (ephor) and the teachers.